The financial link in the Uruguayan transitional justice
Keywords:
Transitional justice, authoritarian regime, economic complicity, responsibility, financeAbstract
This article studies the economic and legal implications of the financial support provided by lenders to the civilian-military dictatorship in Uruguay. Using a holistic, dynamic and casuistic approach, it first describes the political context of the Uruguayan dictatorship and the volume and seriousness of the crimes perpetrated. Then it analyzes the country’s economy, the monetary, fiscal, production and budgetary policies, the military expenditures, and how all these could have reinforced the regime and, therefore, facilitated the human rights violations. It also presents the position of the United States toward the dictatorship, focusing on its financial policy based on human rights. Finally it describes the transitional justice policies adopted in Uruguay from 1985, highlighting the absence of references to responsibility for financial complicity, while it proposes for discussion concrete mechanisms for its realization.
Downloads
References
Aldrighi, Clara (2007). El caso Mitrione. La intervención de EEUU en Uruguay, 1965-1973. Montevideo: Trilce.
Allier Montaňo, Eugenia (2010). Batallas por la memoria. Los usos políticos del pasado reciente en Uruguay. Montevideo: Ediciones Trilce.
Almqvist, Jessica & Esposito, Carlos (2011). The Role of Courts in Transitional Justice Voices from Latin America and Spain. Nueva York: Routledge.
Álvarez, José (2011). “Are Corporations ‘Subjects’ of International Law?” Santa Clara Journal of International Law 9 (1):1-36.
Azar, Paola et al. (2009). ¿De quiénes, para quiénes y para qué? Las finanzas públicas de Uruguay en el siglo XX. Montevideo: Fin de Siglo.
Banco Central del Uruguay (1970-1990). “Boletín Estadístico”. Montevideo. Disponible en: www.bcu.gub.uy
Banco Mundial (varios años). “World Debt Tables, External Debt of Developing Countries”. Washington, D.C.
Barnard-Naude, Jaco (2008). “For Justice and Reconciliation to Come: The TRC Archive, Big Business and the Demand for Material Reparations”. En du Bois, François y Antje du Bois-Pedain (eds). Justice and Reconciliation in Post-Apartheid South Africa, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Blomberg, Brock (1996). “Growth, Political Instability and the Defense Burden”. Economica 63 (252):449-73.
Bohoslavsky, Juan Pablo y Abel Escribà-Folch (2013). “Rational Choice and Financial Complicity with Human Rights Abuses: Policy and Legal Implications” en Juan Pablo Bohoslavsky y Jernej Cernic (eds.). Making Sovereign Financing & Human Rights Work. Oxford: Hart Publishing (en prensa).
Bohoslavsky, Juan Pablo (2012). “Tracking down the missing financial link in transitional justice”, The International Human Rights Law Review, 1(1):54-92.
Bohoslavsky, Juan Pablo & Torelly, Marcelo (2013). “Financial Complicity: The Brazilian Dictatorship Under The ‘Macroscope’” en Dustin Sharp (ed.), Justice and Economic Violence in Transition. Springer Publications: New York (en prensa).
Bohoslavsky, Juan Pablo y Mariana Rulli (2012). “Corporate complicity and Finance as a ‘Killing Agent’. The Relevance of the Chilean Case”. Journal of International Criminal Justice, Vol. 8, No. 3.
Bohoslavsky, Juan Pablo y Veerle Opgenhaffen (2010). “The Past and Present of Bank Responsibility for Financing the Argentinean Dictatorship”. Harvard Human Rights Journal, Vol. 23.
Bueno de la Mesquita, Bruce et al. (2003). The Logic of Political Survival. Cambridge, Massachussets: MIT Press.
Caetano, Gerardo y José Rilla (2005). Historia Contemporánea del Uruguay: de la colonia al siglo XXI. Montevideo: Editorial Fin de Siglo.
Caetano, Gerardo (1992). “Partidos, Estado y cámaras empresariales en el Uruguay contemporáneo (1900-1991)”. En AA.VV. Organizaciones empresariales y políticas públicas, Montevideo: CIESU-FESUR.
Cancela, Walter y Alicia Melgar (1986). El desarrollo frustrado, Montevideo: CLAEH-EBO.
Cassese, Antonio (1978). “Study of the Impact of Foreign Economic Aid and Assistance on Respect for Human Rights in Chile”, E/CN.4/Sub.2/412,Vols I-IV, 1978. Disponible en: http://www.antoniocassese.it/english/reports/home.htm
Černič, Jernej Letnar (2010). Human Rights Law and Business. Amsterdam: Europa Law Publishing.
Cohen, Roberta (1982). “Human Rights Diplomacy: The Carter Administration and the Southern Cone”. Human Rights Quarterly 4(2):212.242.
Cole, Elizabeth (2007). “Transitional Justice and the Reform of History Education”, International Journal of Transitional Justice 1(1):115-137.
Comisión Internacional de Juristas (2008), “Corporate Complicity & Legal Accountability”, Vols. I-III, Ginebra, disponible en:
http://www.icj.org/default.asp?nodeID=349&sessID=&langage=1&myPage=Legal_Documentation&id=22851
Comisión para la Paz (2003), “Informe Final”, Montevideo.
Corti, Aníbal (2003), “La brutalización de la política en la crisis de la democracia uruguaya” en Aldo Marchesi et al. El presente de la dictadura. Estudios y reflexiones a 30 años del golpe de Estado en Uruguay. Montevideo: Ediciones Trilce.
Choudhury, Barnali (2010-2011). “Exception Provisions as a Gateway to Incorporating Human Rights Issues into International Investment Agreements”. Columbia Journal of Transnational Law, Vol. 49.
Daly, Herman (1965). “The Uruguayan Economy: Its Basic Nature and Current Problems”. Journal of Inter-American Studies 7(3).
Demasi, Carlos (2003), “Un repaso a la teoría de los dos demonios”. En Aldo Marchesi, et al. El presente de la dictadura. Estudios y reflexiones a 30 años del golpe de Estado en Uruguay. Montevideo: Ediciones Trilce.
Dinges, John (2003). “Green Light-Red Light: Henry Kissinger’s Two-Track Approach to Human Rights During the ‘Condor Years’ in Chile and Argentina”. En Cynthia Arnson, (ed.). Argentina-United States Bilateral Relations: An Historical Perspective and Future Challenges. Washington D.C.: Woodrow Wilson International Center for Scholars.
Errandonea, Jorge (2008). “Justicia transicional en Uruguay”. Revista Instituto Interamericano de Derechos Humanos, Vol. 47.
Esparza, Marcia et al. (2009). State Violence and Genocide in Latin America: the Cold War Years. London ; New York: Routledge.
Faroppa, Luis (1982). Política para una economía desequilibrada: Uruguay 1958-1951. Montevideo: Ediciones de la Banda Oriental.
Finch, Henry (1981). A Political Economy of Uruguay Since 1870. New York: St. Martin's Press.
Finch, Henry (1985). “El régimen militar y la clase dominante en Uruguay”. En AA.VV., Uruguay y la democracia, Tomo II. Montevideo: Ediciones de la Banda Oriental.
Fried, Gabriela y Francesca Lessa (eds.) (2011). Luchas Contra la Impunidad: Uruguay 1985-2011. Montevideo: Ediciones Trilce.
Galain Palermo, Pablo (2010). “The Prosecution of International Crimes in Uruguay”. International Criminal Law Review 10(4): 601–18.
Gargarella, Roberto (2012), “Sin lugar para la soberanía popular. Democracia, derechos y castigo en el caso Gelman”, (inédito).
Gelpern, Anna (2005). “Sovereign Debt Restructuring: What Irak and Argentina Might Learn From Each Other”. Chicago Journal of International Law, Vol. 6.
Goodman, Ryan, Derek Jinks y Andrew Woods (2012).“Social Science and Human Rights”. En Goodman, Jinks y Andrew Woods (eds.), Understanding Social Action, Promoting Human Rights. Nueva York: Oxford University Press (en prensa).
Griesgraber, Jo Marie (1983). Implementation by the Carter Administration of Human Rights Legislation Affecting Latin America. Tesis doctoral inédita. Washingotn, D.C.: Georgetown University.
Grindle, Merilee (1987). “Civil-Military Relations and Budgetary Politics in Latin America”, Armed Forces & Society 13(2): 255-275.
Haggard, Stephan y Robert Kaufman (1995). The Political Economy of Democratic Transitions. Princeton: Princeton University Press.
Heinz, Wolfgang y Hugo Fruhling (1999). Determinants of Gross Human Rights Violations by State and State-Sponsored Actors in Brazil, Uruguay, Chile, and Argentina (1960-1990). The Hague: Kluwer Law International.
Iglesias, Mariana (2011). “El ‘Día del Nunca Más’ en Uruguay (2006-2007): estrategias políticas y luchas interpretativas sobre la violencia política durante las décadas de 1960 y 1970”. En Ernesto Bohoslavsky et al. Problemas de historia reciente del Cono Sur, Vol. I. Buenos Aires: Prometeo Libros – Universidad Nacional de General Sarmiento.
Johnson, Robert (2006). Congress and the Cold War. New York: Cambridge University Press.
Kaufman, Edy (1979). Uruguay in Transition. From Civilian to Military Rule. New Brunswick: Transaction Books.
Lawyers Committee for International Human Rights (1985), “The Generals Give Back Uruguay: A Report on Human Rights”, Nueva York.
Mayer-Rieckh, Alexander y Pablo de Greiff (2007). Justice as Prevention: Vetting Public Employees in Transitional Societies. New York: Social Science Research Council.
Mallinder, Louis (2009). “Impunity, Accountability and Public Participation: Uruguay’s Evolving Experience of Amnesty Laws”. Working paper from Beyond Legalism: Amnesties, Transition and Conflict Transformation project, Institute of Criminology and Criminal Justice, Belfast: Queen’s University. Disponible en: http://works.bepress.com/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1000&context=louise_mallinder
Markarian, Vania (2009). “Una mirada desde los derechos humanos a las relaciones internacionales de la dictadura uruguaya”. En Carlos Demasi et al. La dictadura cívico militar. Uruguay 1973-1985. Montevideo: Ediciones de la Banda Oriental.
McSherry, Patrice (2005). Predatory States. Lanham: Rowman & Littlefield Publishers.
Michalowski, Sabine y Juan Pablo Bohoslavsky (2010). “Ius Cogens, Transitional Justice and other Trends of the Debate on Odious Debts. A Response to the World Bank Discussion Paper on Odious Debts”. Columbia Journal of Transnational Law, Vol. 48(1):62-120.
Notaro, Jorge (2010). “Estrategia de desarrollo, política económica y actores sociales. Uruguay 1968-1984”. Boletín de Historia Económica, N° 9.
Notaro, Jorge (2003). “La batalla que ganó la economía. 1972-1984”. En Bertoni et al. El Uruguay del siglo XX. La Economía. Montevideo: Instituto de Economía – Ediciones de la Banda Oriental.
Notaro, Jorge (1984). La política económica en el Uruguay (1968 – 1984). Montevideo: Ediciones de la Banda Oriental.
OAS, Comisión Interamericana de Derechos Humanos (1978). “Informe sobre la situación de los Derechos Humanos en Uruguay”. Washington, D.C.
Oatley, Thomas (2010). “Political Institutions and Foreign Debt in the Developing World”. International Studies Quarterly 54 (1): 175-195.
O’Donnell, Guillermo (1978). “Reflections on the Patterns of Change in the Bureaucratic-Authoritarian State”, Latin American Research Review, Vol. 13.
Polack, Ana (2004). “Ciudadanía y derechos humanos en el periodo de transición a la democracia. Un estudio comparado de los casos de Argentina y Uruguay”, e-l@tina Revista Electrónica de Estudios Latinoamericanos, Vol. 3, N° 9.
Prats, Martín (2010). “Uruguay,” en AA.VV., Las víctimas y la justicia transicional. ¿Están cumpliendo los Estados Latinoamericanos con los estándares internacionales?, Washington, D.C.: Fundación para el Debido Proceso Legal.
Raffer, Kunibert & Singer, H.W. (2001), The Economic North-South Divide. Six Decades of Unequal Development. Cheltenham, Northampton: Edward Elgar Ed.
Rico, Álvaro (2009). “Sobre el autoritarismo y el golpe de Estado. La dictadura y el dictador”. En Carlos Demasi et al. La dictadura cívico militar. Uruguay 1973-1985. Montevideo: Ediciones de la Banda Oriental.
Schoultz, Lars (1981). Human Rights and United States Policy toward Latin America. Princeton: Princeton University Press.
SERJAP (1989). “Uruguay Nunca Más,” Montevideo.
Shaffer, Gregory y Tom Ginsburg (2012). “The Empirical Turn in International Legal Scholarship”. American Journal of International Law 106(1):1-46.
Sharp, Dustin (2012). “Addressing Economic Violence in Times of Transition: Toward a Positive-Peace Paradigm for Transitional Justice”. Fordham International Law Journal 35(3):780-814.
Skaar, Elin (2007). “Legal Development and Human Rights in Uruguay: 1985-2000”. Human Rights Review 8(2):52-70.
Sikkink, Kathryn (2011). The Justice Cascade: How Human Rights Prosecutions Are Changing World Politics. Nueva York: W. W. Norton & Company.
Sikkink, Kathryn (2004). Mixed Signals. U.S. Human Rights Policy and Latin America. New York: Cornell University Press.
Stockholm International Peace Research Institute (1979, 1980, 1983, 1984, 1990), “World Armaments and Disarmamen”. Yearbook.
Universidad de la República (2008). “Investigación histórica sobre la dictadura y el terrorismo de Estado en el Uruguay (1973-1985)”. Montevideo: Ed. Cruz del Sur-Tradinco-CEIU. Disponible en www.universidad.edu.uy
US Arms Control and Disarmament Agency (1969-78; 1972-82, 1985; 1987, 1988). “World Military Expenditures and Arms Trade”, Washington, DC.
Varela Petito, Gonzalo (2003). “El golpe de Estado 1973, revisitado”. En Aldo Marchesi et al. El presente de la dictadura. Estudios y reflexiones a 30 años del golpe de Estado en Uruguay. Montevideo: Ediciones Trilce.
Waibel, Michael (2007). “Opening Pandora’s Box: Sovereign Bonds in International Arbitration”. American Journal of International Law Vol. 101
Walczak, James (1981). “New Directions in U.S. Food Aid: Human Rights and Economic Development”. En Ved Nanda et al. Global Human Rights: Public Policies, Comparative Measures and NGO Strategies. Boulder: Westview Press.
Weinstein, Martin (1988). Uruguay: Democracy at the Crossroads. Boulder and London: Westview Press.
Wintrobe, Ronald (1988). The Political Economy of Dictatorship. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Yaffé, Jaime (2009). “Proceso económico y política económica durante la dictadura (1973-1984)”. En Carlos Demasi et al. La dictadura cívico militar. Uruguay 1973-1985, Montevideo: Ediciones de la Banda Oriental.